Historical Background of Christian Worship
by Ellyzabeth

Worship After the Reformation

The rise of the Reformation lead to vast changes in several areas, such as the emergence of a new movement, known as the free church tradition, which influenced doctrine and worship patterns throughout subsequent history. The following discussion will focus upon the worship patterns that underwent changes during the Reformation era and how that has impacted worship patterns down to this day.

William D. Maxwell commented that at the start of the Reformation,

the celebration of the Lord’s Supper in the Western Church had become a dramatic spectacle, culminating not in communion but in the miracle of transubstantiation, and marked by adoration, not unmixed with superstition, at the elevation. Said inaudibly in an unknown tongue, and surrounded with ornate ceremonial and, if a sung mass, with elaborate musical accompaniment, the rite presented only meager opportunity for popular participation. The people were not encouraged to communicate more often than once a year. The sermon had fallen into a grave decline, most parish priests being too illiterate to preach; and the place of the Scripture lections had been usurped on a great many days by passages from the lives and legends of the saints. The Scriptures were not fully accessible in the vernacular, and paid masses and indulgences were a source of simoniacal exploitation. Reformation was an urgent necessity.[14]

Apparently, the reform of worship was initiated by Martin Luther, John Calvin and some other Reformers. Eventually, a different pattern of Protestant worship arose.

Robert Webber classifies the different patterns of worship during the Reformation era into two major categories. The first category is what is called ‘Classical Protestant Worship,’ which dealt with different liturgies held by Reformers; and the second category is what is called ‘Free Church Worship,’ which dealt with another change of worship styles with new convictions that regard worship subjectively. Some of the movements arose from this line, namely, the antiliturgical movement, pedagogical worship in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and also an evangelistic approach to worship in the nineteenth century.[15] This way of categorizing the patterns of worship is helpful in understanding the stand or traditions of different denominations.[16]

The first category is ‘Classical Protestant Worship.’ Apparently, some traditions were retained from the past, whereas others forged new styles of worship. For example, the Lutheran and Anglican traditions retained most of the past worship patterns; the Zwinglian and Anabaptist traditions adapted other patterns of worship, and at the same time rejected the past patterns of worship. The Reformed tradition adapted a more middle line. The three Reformers who influenced patterns of worship service to the greatest extent were Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin. 

Martin Luther strongly rejected the use of the Mass in the worship service. Luther claimed that the Mass had lost its original purpose as a thanksgiving and instead, the Mass had become a propitiation for people to please God. Consequently, the Mass could even be treated as a legalistic means of buying salvation. Not only that, the doctrine of transubstantiation, as it influenced the theology of sacrifice in the Mass, was also rejected by the Reformers. In addition, Luther insisted that the Word of God be restored to its rightful central place in worship.

Ulrich Zwingli strongly emphasized the centrality of the Word of God in the worship service. In regard to Eucharistic celebration, Zwingli followed the Calvinism circles that practiced quarterly communion, which also influenced some other denominations, namely Baptists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, and independents, which included most of American Protestant Christianity which was rooted in English Puritanism.

John Calvin’s emphases in worship followed closely the liturgy of Martin Bucer of Strasbourg. This combined Zwinglian emphases with Lutheranism and the Strasbourg liturgy.[17] Subsequently, the so-called Calvinistic liturgy was followed by the Reformed community.

The second category is the ‘Free Churches’ that fell into another pattern in worship. To start with, an ‘antiliturgical movement’ was one of the bases of ‘Free Church Worship.’ Basically, this movement originated from the Puritans in England.[18]The emphasis of this ‘antiliturgical movement’ was spiritual worship that moved away from the past pattern of worship, such as the use of prayer books. For example, though the Congregationalists did not emphasize their worship service as spiritual worship, yet one of their disagreements with the past pattern of worship was the use of the prayer book in the worship service. To them, a prayer must be from the heart of an individual as directed by the Holy Spirit. This emphasis on so-called free prayer was supported by six arguments.

Firstly, written prayers deprive the person of his or her own thoughts and words; secondly, set forms could not meet the variety of needs in a particular congregation; thirdly, set forms are idolatrous as they equate the liturgy with the Bible; fourthly, set forms lead to over familiarity and lack of interest; fifthly, imposing set forms is a manner of persecution. [The desire was for each congregation to be free to order its own worship.]; sixthly, set prayers oppose the appropriate approach to the Father.[19]

In addition to the Congregationalists were the Baptists. The Baptists, in its view of congregational church authority, claimed that a member of a church must be a believer who had been baptized voluntarily. This was known as ‘regenerate church membership.’ In other words, each member who was a believer himself was a priest to fellow believers and at the same time, a missionary to unbelievers. Also, decision making in the church depended upon the entire membership. Similarly, the Presbyterians were also against the use of the prayer book, for it lessened the use of Scripture in a worship service which they emphasized.[20] The Quakers also emphasized spiritual worship, though the movement did not belong to Puritanism. They believed that individuals should await the moving of the Holy Spirit while worshipping God. George Fox (1624-1691) being the pioneer of the Quakerism, insisted that worship should not depend upon set places, set times, sacraments or even books. What he believed was that the Spirit of God which indwelled in the Scriptures, was still working in the human heart. Hence, worship consisted simply on waiting and even hearing what He would say to individual.[21]

Another movement is known as ‘Pedagogical Worship.’ This type of worship emphasized the need to understand God’s Word. This movement which included denominations such as the Presbyterians, the Congregationalists, and many independents was significantly influenced by the Puritans.

Another pattern of worship was known as ‘Evangelistic Worship.’ Pietism, Moravianism, and Revivalism best illustrate this approach. As evangelistic worship emphasizes personal experience in the worship service, so does Pietism. Basically, the pietistic movement emphasized personal experience. In other words, one’s experience in the worship service as a truly converted person would replace the order of a corporate worship service. Like Pietists, the Moravians and Revivalists also emphasized personal experience in the worship service. The difference was that for Moravianism and Revivalism, the singing of hymns was largely used. Furthermore, from the rise of Revivalism, worship service patterns underwent another change, when people started services in homes, instead of in a church building.

One of the important contributions from Revivalism was its concern for evangelism, bringing unbelievers into the worship service. This opened up another style of worship. Revivalistic worship foreshadowed the evangelistic worship pattern that is still practiced in many churches today.[22]

Basically, the Latin term of revivere from which we get the English word “revival” means to “live again” Earle Cairns defines revival or renewal as

the work of the Holy Spirit in restoring the people of God to a more vital spiritual life, witness, and work by prayer and the Word after repentance in crisis for their spiritual decline. The permanent elements in revival are the Word, prayer, the Holy Spirit, and a sovereign God who uses man as his instrument.[23] 

“Revivalism” was a key movement in the development of worship and evangelism in the nineteenth-century. A closer study of the church’s worship during this period will show how it has influenced modern practices.[24] It is also important to note that while revivalism in the United States was no oddity to the people for whom it was a common practice, in Europe revivals occurred only occasionally.[25]

The first Great Awakening was from 1732 – 1790. At this time, the Lord used some people to bring revival in England and America. In America, Jonathan Edwards ministered in Northampton, Massachusetts, where it was said that a third of the population was converted, and even went further to New York and New Jersey.

Furthermore, Edwards also influenced the development of music whereby he promoted the singing of metrical psalms[26] according to his style of preaching.[27] In England, George Whitefield also did the same thing. His ministry prevailed over the whole country and so much so it was said, that about one person in ten converted throughout the Colonies.[28] John and Charles Wesley should also be noted. The two Wesleys did itinerant preaching as their ministry. Their main contribution may have been to the Methodist Church. Moreover, Charles taught the Methodists to sing English hymns. Many of the 6500 hymns which written by Charles Wesley are still in use till today, such as ‘Hark, the Herald Angels Sing,’ ‘O For A Thousand Tongues to Sing,’ ‘Christ the Lord is Risen Today,’ etc.

By the eighteenth century, the singing of Psalms had declined due to the simplicity of the psalm-singing practiced. Only thirteen melodies were used to sing all 150 psalms. At the same time, congregational singing also faced the same challenge. One of the reasons given was that singing was too slow[29] and became very monotonous. No lively music was used, for it was thought to be devil’s music. Ultimately, a reform of singing movement was founded which known as the “new way” or “regular singing” or “singing school.”[30]

The most influences brought by the singing school movement, was the increase of folk tunes singing. With that, the direction of the singing school movement had somewhat becoming toward secular viewpoint that enforced the need of having religious music. The trends of American church music included different kinds of music, including the American folk hymn. Though the folk hymn originated from the folk tune yet the text used was religious.

Basically, the American folk hymn derived from “spiritual songs” which were used during the American revivalist era. In addition to spiritual songs, some other types of church music developed, including the “religious ballad” which was similar to the folk hymn, but it was sang in the form of narrative. Another kind was known as the “camp-meeting spiritual” which was characterized by the simplicity of its text, frequent repetition, refrains and tag lines.

Though American church music seemed to progress, as late as 1837, the so-called notated tunes were not yet in existence. William Caldwell called these tunes the “unwritten music” of Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians.[31] At that time, the “Fasola” singing school became influential, as it was related closely to the camp meeting hymns. Basically, the singing school contributed to the cultivation of the camp meeting hymns in the area of the song tunes’ compilation. The singing manuals included with the “shaped-notes” system also underwent some changes.[32] This “shaped-notes” system was being used until the time of the Sacred Harp tradition. 

The first Southern collection was compiled by Ananias Davisson (1780-1857) and known as Kentucky Harmony. In this collection he compiled 144 folk hymn tunes. Another important compilation was the Southern Harmony. Billy Walker first published this collection in 1835. In this collection, Walker tried to combine already existing popular hymns with tunes the people had already known for years. And the last important collection from the “Fasola” singing school was the Sacred Harp for it held the longest history among other collections to be used, from the year 1844 till the present day. B. F. White and E. J. King compiled this collection.

Furthermore, the Second Great Awakening, which happened around 1790, brought two movements, namely the Yale Revival and the Camp Meeting Movement. Incidentally, the Yale revival brought about the establishment of Yale University in 1795 by Timothy Dwight. Ultimately, both movements also brought thousands to Christ. Furthermore, the practice of public invitation was first used at this time under Charles Finney. He was also known for delivering powerful sermons on gospel themes. It can be said that the years 1792–1842 were fifty years of continuous revivals in the United States. From this time, revivalism became a regular pattern of American life and even went further to the rest of the English-speaking world. By 1857, Canada experienced another great revival that went further through America, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Wales, England, South Africa, Scandinavia, Switzerland, and many other countries. Some revival leaders of the nineteenth century included Walter and Phoebe Palmer, Jeremiah Lamphier, George Williams, Gawin Kirkham, Dwight L. Moody, Reuben Torrey, and others. Moreover, the great contribution to the Worship-Evangelism service was the introduction of Moody and Sankey of the so-called “Gospel hymn.”

Within the era of the Second Great Awakening, a man by the name of Joseph Smith gave an account of ‘camp meetings,’ which would be another kind of worship and evangelism practice. The service began when a minister entered the tent and starting to pray while the congregation stood up. Then, everyone sang a psalm, followed by another prayer and another psalm, after which the sermon would be delivered.[33] The Methodists took another viewpoint with regards to worship and evangelistic practice. The Methodists differed from the Presbyterians who emphasized evangelism within the services of the sacramental season. The Methodists preferred having camp meetings. They placed less emphasis on the sacramental services and were more interested in experiencing revival,[34] whereby Presbyterians usually promoted an idea of worship and evangelistic practice that was brought into the country from Scotland and Ireland.[35]

Another worship and evangelistic model was conducted by a group of itinerant evangelists including James Alexander Haldane, Robert Haldane, and Greville Ewing. Basically, they insisted that itinerant preaching, done by laity rather than by ordained clergy, be allowed. They established large tabernacles in several cities. Baptism by immersion and frequent celebrations of the Lord’s Supper were important elements in their services.   

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[14] William D. Maxwell,An Outline of Christian Worship (London: Oxford University Press, 1939), 72. 

[15] Webber, Worship Old & New, 110, 114.  

[16] “Tradition simply means inherited worship practices and beliefs that show continuity from generation to generation.” James F. White,Protestant Worship: Traditions in Transition (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster / John Knox Press, 1989), 21.

[17] “Before Bucer, the worship at Strasbourg retained ceremonial aspects such as vestments, elevation, washing of the celebrant’s hands, and genuflection but omitted all indications of a doctrine of sacrifice. Bucer reduced the worship to its simplest forms. Most of the versicles and responses disappeared with the resulting loss of the antiphonal character of worship. Proses such as theGloria in excelsis Deo and the Kyries were replaced by metrical psalms and hymns. Even the Sursum corda and the prefaces such as the Sanctus and the Benedictus disappeared, being substituted by a general prayer of thanksgiving for Christ’s work. The lections also disappeared, allowing the minister to “pick his text,” and sermons became an hour in length.” R. C. D. Jasper and G. C. Cumings, Prayers of the Eucharist: Early and Reformed, Second edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 153.

[18] “Most of the English Puritans remained within the Anglican church though this kind of established church did not last long, due to some government issues. Some of the people identified themselves as Presbyterians as in fact, the American Puritans did. On the other hand, those American Puritans who tried to remain within Anglican circles, became Congregational in church polity.” Leland Ryken, Wordly Saints (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Academie Books, 1986), 111-112. 

[19] Horton Davies, “Congregationalist Worship,” in The Westminster Dictionary of Worship, ed. J. G. Davis (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1972), 149. 

[20] Webber, Worship Old & New, 116.  

[21] Horton Davies, Christian Worship: Its History and Meaning (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1957), 70.  

[22] Webber, Worship Old & New, 118.  

[23] Earle E. Cairns, An Endless Line of Splendor: Revivals and Their Leaders from the Great Awakening to the Present (Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, 1986), 22. 

[24] “In America, nineteenth-century revival movements forged a relationship between worship and evangelism that continues to be widely influential today, even in worship traditions not traditionally associated with revivalism.” Keith Watkins, “Worship and Evangelism in Nineteenth-Century Revivalism,” in The Ministries of Christian Worship, ed. Robert E. Webber (Nashville: Star Song Publishing, 1994), 433.   

[25] Donald P. Ellsworth,Christian Music in Contemporary Witness: Historical Antecedents and Contemporary Practices (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1979), 185. 

[26] Originally, the singing of metrical psalms, or psalmody, was the primary form of sacred music practiced in America. Many American churches of the early colonial period used the Ainsworth Psalter (1620); the Sternhold and Hopkins Psalter (“Old Version”); the Tate and Brady Psalter (“New Version”) and also the Scottish Psalter. Due to the demand of having a new version of the Psalms, the Bay Psalm Book was printed in 1640. The Bay Psalm Book was both the first American Psalter and also the first book of any kind to be printed in the new country. James Sallee,A History of Evangelistic Hymnody (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1978), 19. 

[27] In regard to his preaching, “Edwards believed in ‘personal religion’ that is preaching to the emotions. As he said: ‘The heart of true religion is holy affection. Our people do not so much need to have their heads stored, as to have their hearts touched.’ Donald P. Hustad, Jubilate II – Church Music in Worship and Renewal, 224.    

[28] The “colonies” refers to the eastern part of what is now the USA. Whitefield (and the Wesleys) traveled in both the Brititsh Isles and the American colonies.  

[29] “The Practice known as “lining-out” or “deaconing.” Here, a deacon would read a line or two of a psalm, and followed immediately by the congregation. Sometimes it would take as long as thirty minutes to sing a psalm.  

[30] Sallee, A History of Evangelistic Hymnody, 21. 

[31] George Pullen Jackson, White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands: The Story of the Fasola Folk, Their Songs, Singings, and “Buckwheat Notes (New York: Dover Publications, 1965), 237.  

[32] The “shape-notes system was a scheme used to differentiate each character for each syllable. William Little and William Smith were the first to introduce the system. By the last half of the nineteenth century, the shape-notes system developed, from only four shapes (faw, sol, law, faw, sol, law, mi, faw) into seven. In this regard, it was using the European system of solmization whereby it was the use of seven syllables (do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-si). Sallee, A History of Evangelistic Hymnody, 38-39.    

[33] “The normal custom was for a minister to conduct the Eucharist annually in each of his two or three congregations. People from one church would go to neighboring congregations on Communion Sundays, thus enlarging the crowds and increasing their frequency of communicating. Thursday served as the day of preparation, with much preaching and an active process of reconciliation. Furthermore, the Sunday celebration itself usually took place outside in a grove near the church, where large trees provided shade. A wooden covered platform called a tent was constructed, six or eight feet wide, ten or twelve feet long, and about four feet high. The space in front of this tent was reserved for the Communion tables, rough hewn logs at table heights, with plank or log seats around them. At the central point of these tables, a table of more finished character held the Communion element and was the place from which the Communion ceremony itself was conducted. On Communion Sundays the tables were “covered with snowy linen, all radiating from the large Communion table, containing the vessels of the sacred symbols, and all this covered with white napkins.” Watkins, “Worship and Evangelism in Nineteenth-Century Revivalism,” 434.  

[34] Watkins, “Worship and Evangelism in Nineteenth-Century Revivalism,”435.

[35] Congregations would remain outside where preaching services would continue. As early as the Reformation of Scottish churches, the idea of annual celebrations of the Lord’s Supper was already moved into a step, that was the sacrament act. Frequently, the celebration of the Lord’s Supper extended into the evening hours. Watkins, “Worship and Evangelism in Nineteenth-Century Revivalism,” 433.